Arab loan English words listed by W. Montgomery Watt

“The main objective of the composition of the list to show our debt, European people, to Islam during the Medieval Age… This list not include all of the Arab loan English words at all.” — W. Montgomerry Watt

Note: In bracket it its Indonesian translation.

W. Montgomery Watt

ABYSSINIA — Ar. habashi (Habashah)

ADMIRAL — Ar. amir. al-rahl (pimpinan kafilah), atau amir al-bahr (komandan angkatan laut).

ADOBE — Ar. al-tub (brick)

ALBATROSS — Port. alcadroz — Ar. al-qadus (kendi, burung bentukan).

ALCAIDE, ALCALDE — Ar. al-qa’id

ALCANNA (tanaman yang menghasilkan bahan celup) — Ar. al-hinna’

ALCHEMY — Ar. al-kimiya’ – bahasa Mesir, kemi

ALCOHOL — Ar. al-kuhl, al-kahul (bubuk)

ALCOVE — Sp. alcoba – Ar. al-qubba (kubah)

ALEMBIC — Ar. al-anbiq — Yun. ambix

ALEPPIN (materi) — Aleppo — Ar. halab

ALFA, HALFA (rumput) — Ar. halfa

ALFALFA — Ar. al-fasfasa

ALGEBRA — Ar. al-jabr (aljabar)

ALGORITHM — Ar. al-Khawarizmi (nama orang, penulis kitab Aljabar)

ALKALI — Ar. al-qali (garam abu; kalium karbonat)

ALKANET (tanaman penghasil bahan celup) — Ar. al-hinna’ (pacar)

ALMAGEST — Ar. al-majisti — Yun.

ALMANACH — Ar. al-munakh (cerita, dan lainnya)

ALPACA — Ar. al-, Sp. paco

AMALGAM — Ar. al-malgham — Yun. malagma

AMBER — Ar. ‘anbar

AMICE — Sp. almucio — Ar. al-mustaq — Pers.

ALMULET — (?) Ar. al-hama’il (yang dibawa)

ANILIN — Ar. al-nila (nila) — Sank. nilas

ANTIMONY — Ar. itsmid — Coptic stim

APRICOT — Sp. albaricoque — Ar. — Lat. praecox

ARAB (kuda), ARABESQUE — Ar. ‘arab (Arab)

ARRACK — Ar. ‘araq (secara harfiah: manis)

ARSENAL — Ar. dar al-sina’a

ANTICHOKE — Sp. alcarchofo — Ar. al-kharshuf

ASSASIN — Ar. hashishiyyln, hashshashin (penjual atau pemakai hashish)

ATLAS (pakaian) — Ar. atlas (lembut)

AUBERGINE — Sp. alberengena — Ar. al-badinjan —Pers.

AVERAGE — Sp. averia — Ar. ‘awwar (kalah)

AZIMUTH — Ar. al-sumut (jalan, arah)

AZOTH (air raksa) — Ar. al-dzawuq

AZURE — Ar. lazwardi— Pers.; atau Ar. azraq (biru)

BABOON — Ar. maymun (lutung; kera)

BALCONY — Pers. balakhana (tempat atas) — Ar. bala

BALDACHINO — It. baldacco — Ar. Baghdad

BANANA — Ar. banana (jari)

BARBERRY — Ar. barbaris

BARBICAN — Sp. barbacana — Pers. balakhana — Ar. bala

BARQUE — Port. barroca — Ar. burqa (pasir yang tak rata, d11.)

BARQUE, BARQUENTINE, BRIGANTINE — Sp. barca — Ar. barsha, (barija) — bahasa Mesir, va-ra (kapal matahari)

BEDOUIN — Ar. badawiyyin

BENZINE, dsb. — Ar. luban jawi (bahan bakar di Jawa)

BERBERINE — Ar. barbaris

BERGAMOT — Ar. — Turk. begarmudy (mutiara raja)

BEZOAR — Sp. bezoar — Ar. —Pers. padzahr

BISMUTH — Sp. bismuto — (?) Ar. itsmid (logam putih)

BLOUSE — Lat. Pelusia — Ar. balusi — bahasa Mesir, Palusium

BOMBASINE — Lat. bombacium — Ar. — Pers. panba (kapas) (Turk. pembe)

BORAX — Port. borax — Ar. buraq — Pers. burah

BORAGE — Per. bourrache — Ar. abu-raj (biang keringat)

BUCKRAM, BARCHANT — Ar. barrakan (barang berat)

CABAS (tas kerja) — Ar. qafash

CABAYA — Ar. qaba’ — Pers.

CABLE — Ar. habl (tali)

CADI, CAUZEE — Ar. qadli (hakim)

CALIBRE — Ar. qalib (model)

CALIPH — Sp. califa — Ar. khalifa

CAMEL — Lat. camelus — Ar. jamal (unta)

CAMELIA — Germ. (Josef) Kammel — Ar. jamal

CAMELOT — (materi) — Ar. jamal

CAMPHOR — Ar. kafur — Sank. karpura

CANDY ;— Ar. qand, qandi (juis gula tebu yang diperas)

CAPER — Sp. alcaparra — Ar. kabbar — Yun. kapparis

CARAFE — Sp. garrafa — Ar. gharrafa

CARAT — Port. quirate — Lat. carratus — Ar. qirat

CARAWAY — Ar. karawiyya (atau karawiya’)

CARMINE — Lat. carmesinus — Ar. qirmazi, qirmiz — Sansk. krimija (ulat)

CAROB — Ar. kharruba — ? Asshrian

CHECK — Ar. Pers. shah (raja) (digunakan sebagai nama permainan)

CHECKMATE — Ar. shah mat (raja meninggal)

CHEMISTRY — (as “alchemy”)

CHEQUE — Ar. sakk (perbuatan, kesepakatan tertulis) atau sebagai “chek”

CHESS — Pers. shah

CHIFFON — Per. kuno chiffe — Ar. shiff (pakaian yang bagus).

CID — Ar. sayyid

CINNABAR — Lat. cinnabaris — Ar. zinjafr — Pers.

CIVET (CAT), ZIBET — Ar. zabad

COFFEE — Ar. qahwa

COFFLE (kereta budak-budak) — Ar. qafila

COTTON — Ar. qutun

COFFER — Tua Per. — Ar. quffa — Yun. kophinos

COLCOTHAR — Ar. qulqutar — Yun. khalkanthe

CRAMOISY — Ar. qirmazi — qirmiz

CRIMSON (lihat “carmine”)

CUBEB — Ar. kabab

CUMIN — Yun. kuminos, asalnya sama dengan Ar. kammun —? Asshrian

CUPOLA — Ar. qubba (kubah)

CYPHER — Ar. sifr (nol; kosong)

DAM, DAMBROD (juru gambar, papan gambar) — Sp. ajedrez de la dama, ajedrez atama — Ar. al-shitranj al-tam (catur yang lengkap)

DAMAN (tukang pikul batu) — Ar. daman

DAMASCENE, DAMASK — L. damascenus — Ar. Dimishk

DAMSON — i.e. damascene plum

DATE — Lat. dactylus — Sp. datil — Ar. daqal (inferior date)

DEMI-JOHN — Ital. damigiana — Ar. damajan — Pers.

DHOW — Ar. dawa

DIVAN — Ar. diwan — Pers.

DRAGOMAN — Ar. tarjuman (penterjemah)

DRUG — Ar. durawa (?)

DRUSE — Ar. Duruz

DURRA — Ar. durra

ELEMI — Sp. elemi —Ar. (al-lami)

ELIXIR — Ar. al-iksir — (?) Yun. xeron

FAKIR – Ar. faqir

FANFARE – Ar. farfara (?) (bandingkan dengan Per. fanfaron)

FATAMORGANA – It. – Ar. marjan (batu karang)

FELUCCA – Port. falua Sp. haloque – Ar. harraqa; atau Ar. falaka (berputar), fulk, fuluka

FELLAH, FELLAHEEN – Ar. fallahin

FONDACO (hotel) – It. – Ar. funduq – Yun. pandocheion

FRET (of guitar) – Ar. farida, fard

FRIEZE – Frisco – Ar. ifriz – (?) Yun. Phrygios

GABELLE – Lat. caballa (pajak) – Ar. qabala

GALA – It. – Ar. khil’a (jubah kehormatan)

GALINGALE – Lat. galanga – Ar. khalanjan

GALLANT – Sp. galante (berpakaian yang bagus) – Ar. khil’a

GAMASH (pembalut kaki) – (?) Sp. guadamaci – Ar. ghadamasi (salah satu bentuk kulit)

GAZE, GAUZE -Sp. gasa – Ar. qazz (sutera) – Pers. (mungkin bukan dari Gaza)

GAZELLE – Ar. ghazal

GAZETTE – It. gazzetta (uang logam) – Lat. gaza – Ar. kanz – Pers. ganj (harta benda)

GHAZAL (puisi) – Ar. ghazal

GIAOUR, GUEBRE – Turk. – Pers. gar – (?) Ar. kafir (orang yang tak percaya), atau jawara (orang yang menyimpang)

GILRALTAR – Ar. jabal Tariq (gunung Tariq).

GINGER – Lat. gingiber, zingiber Ar. zanjabil – Sank.

GIRAFFE – Ar. zurafa

GUITAR (Cither, Citole, Gittern, Zither) – Sp. guitarra – Ar. Qitar – Yun. kithara

GYPSUM – Ar. jibs – Yun. gypsos

HAKEEM, HAKIM – Ar. hakim (doctor), hakim (gubernur)

HASHISH – Ar. hashish

HALICHORE, HALALCOR – Pers. – Ar.

HAZARD – Sp. azar – (?) Ar. al-zahr (akar)

HENNA – Ar. hinna’

HOOKA – Ar. huqqa (pipa air)

HOWDAH – Ar. hawdaj

IRADE (dekrit Sultan) – Turk. – Ar. irada (keinginan)

JAR – Ar. jarra

JASMINE – Ar. yasmin – Pers.

JERBOA – Ar. yarbu’

JUMP, JUPE (jaket, korset) – Ar. jubba

JUMPER – Ar. jubba (mungkin)

JULEP (minum) – Ar. julab – Pers. gul-ab

KALIUM (potassium) – Ar. qali

KAVASS, KAWASS (pembantu bersenjata, kurir) – Ar. qawwas

KERMES (insect giving dye) – Ar. qirmiz; bandingkan dengan Carmine

KISMET – Turk. – Ar. qisma (t)

KOHL (celak mata) – Ar. kuhl

LAC, LACQUER, crimson Lake – ? Ar. – Pers. lak atau Turk. laqa Sansk.

LADANUM, (?LAUDANUM) – Lat. – Ar. ladan

LANDAU – Ar. al-andal – Sansk.

LAPIS-LAZULI – Lat. lazulum – Ar. lazwardi – Pers.

LILAC – Ar. – Pers. lilak

LEMON – Ar. limun – Pers.

LOOFAH – Ar. lufa (1887)

LUTE – Ar. al-‘ud

MAGAZINE – Ar. makhazin (jamak dari makhzan)

MAMELUKE – Ar. mamluk (budak)

MANCUS (mata uang) – Ar. manqush

MARABOU (burung bangau) – Ar. murabit

MARABOUT (orang suci) – Ar. murabit, marbut

MARCASITE – Ar. marqashita – Aramaic

MAROQUIN (dibuat dari kulit Maroko): lihat Morocco

MARZIPAN, Marchpane – Ar. mawthaban (raja yang mapan) – Pers. marzuban

MASK, MASQUE, MASQUERADE – Sp. mascara – Ar. maskhara

MAT, MATT – Ar. mat (meninggal)

MATACHIN (penari-pedang dalam pakaian fantasi) – (?) Ar. mutawailihin (memakai kedok)

MATE (dalam dada) – Ar. mat (meninggal)

MATTRESS – It., Sp. – Ar. matrah (tempat di mana sesuatu dibuang)

MINARET – Ar. manara, minara

MOCHA – Ar. Mukha (kota)

MOHAIR – Ar. mukhayyar (pilihan)

MOIRE (pabrik) — Ar. mukhayyar

MONSOON — Port. moncao() — Ar. mawsim (musim)

MOROCCO — Ar. Marakush (kota)

MOSQUE — Per. Kuno mosquette — Sp. mezqueta — Ar. masjid

MULATTO — (?)•Ar. muwallad

MUMMY — Ar. mumiya — Pers. mum (lilin)

MUSCAT, MUSCADINE, MUSCATEL — Provençal, muscat (ks. Of musc) — Ar. musk, atau Masqat

MUSK — Per. musc — Ar. musk — Pers. mushk

MUSKET — Ar. mustaq

MUSLIN — Ar. Mosul, Mawsil (kota)

MYRRH — Ar. Murr, murra

NABOB — Ar. nuwwab, pl. dari naib (wakil)

NACRE (induk mutiara) — Per. kuno nacaire — Ar. naqqara

NADIR — Sp. nadir — Ar. nazir (bertentangan, sc. dari puncak)

NAKER (kettledrum) — Ar. naqqara — Pers. ?

NATRON — Ar. natrun — Yun. — Ibrani nether

NITRE — Ar. natran, nitrun — Yun. nitron — Ibrani

NORIA — (roda air) — Sp. — Ar. na’ura

OGIVE — Lat. augivus, bandingkan It. auge — Ar. ‘awj

ORANGE — Ar. naranj — Pers. narang

OTTOMAN — Turk. — Ar. Uthman

PERCIVAL (nama) — Ar. faris al-fal (pembawa keberuntungan)

POPINJAY — Per. kuno papagai — Ar. babbagha (?)

RACE — Sp. raza — Ar. ra’s (ketua)

RACKET — Per. raquette — Ar. raha (telapak tangan)

RAZZIA — Ar. (dialek) ghaziyya, ghaziya

REALGAR (arsenik merah) — Ar. rahj al-ghar (puing reruntuhan)

REAM — Per. kuno rayme — Ar. rizma

REBEC — It. ribeba, ribeca Ar. rabab

RICE — Sp. Per. kuno ris, — Ar. ruzz, aruzz

RISK — Sp. arrisco, risco — Ar. rizq (rizki)

ROB (buah jeruk dengan madu) Ar. rubb

ROC (burung) — Ar. rukh — ? Malayu

ROCKET — Ar. raha (telapak tangan) (seperti “raket”)

ROOK (dada) — Ar. rukh

SACCHARIN — Lat. saccharum — Ar. Sukkar

SACRE, SAKER (semacam burung elang) — Ar. saqr

SAFARI — Swahili — Ar. safara (bepergian)

SAFFRON — Per. Safran — Ar. za’faran —?

SALEP, SALOP — (anggrek) — Ar. tsa’lab (srigala, testicle of)

SAMBOOK — Ar. sanbuq

SANDALWOOD — Ar. sandal — Sansk.

SAPPHIRE — Ar. safir — Sansk.

SARACEN — Lat. — Ar. sharqi (timur)

SATIN — It. setino — Ar. zaytuni (sifat dari minuman Cina)

SENNA — Ar. sans

SEPOY — Turk. sipilki — Ar. — Pers. sipah (tentara)

SHELLAC bentuk dari “lac” (q.v.)

SHERBET — Turk. sherbet — Ar. sharba (t) (minum)

SHRUB (minuman) — Ar. shurb (minuman)

S(H)UMACH (tanaman) — Ar. summaq

SIROCCO — It. scirocco — Ar. sharq (timur)

SOFA — Per. — Ar. suffa

SORBET — Turk. shorbet — Ar. sharba(t)

SPAHI — Turk. sipale — Ar. — Pers.

SPINACH — Per. Kuno espinage — Ar. isbanakh — Pers. aspanakh

SUGAR — Per. — Ar. sukkar — Sansk. sharkara

SULTAN — Ar. sultan (kekuasaan)

SULTANA — Ar. (istri sultan)

SYRUP — Per. Kuno sirop — Ar. sharab, shurb (minuman)

TABBY (pakaian) — Ar. ‘Attabiyya (bagian dari Baghdad)

TABOR, TABORIN, TABRET (drum) — Ar.? thabl — Pers. taburak

TALC — Ar. talq —? Pers.

TALISMAN — Ar. tilasm — Yun. telesma

TAMARIND — Ar. tamr hindi (penanggalan India)

TAMARISK — Lat. tamariscus — Ar. tamr

TAMBOUR (drum), Tambourine — Ar. — Pers. tabartik

TARE — Ar. tarha (bungkusan yang dibuang)

TARIFF — It. tariffa — Ar. ta’rif (pemberitahuan)

TAROT (kartu) — It. tarocco — ? Ar.

TARRAGON — Lat. tarchon — Ar. tarkan — Pers.

TASS, TASSIE — Per. tasse — Ar. tass, tassa — Pers. tasht (selat)

TEAK — Port. teca — Ar. saj dan Tamil tekku — Sank. saka

TOQUE — Ital. tocca Ar. taqiya (under-cap)

TROUBADOR — ? Ar. tarrab (penyanyi); taraba (menyanyi)

TURBITH, TURPETH – AR. Turbadh

TUTTY – Ar. tutiya’ (timah oksid)

VIZIR – Ar. wazir

WAD – Per. ouate – Ar. batin

ZEBOARY – Ar. zidwar

ZENITH – Per. kuno cenit – Ar. samt (al-ra’s; pemimpin)

ZERO – It. zero, zefro – Ar. sifr. (nol)

ZIRCON – Ar. azraq (biru)

ZOUAVE – zawawa (nama suku)

Source: W. Montgomery Watt, Islam dan Peradaban Dunia: Pengaruh Islam Atas Eropa Abad Pertengahan, Indonesian translation from: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe,1972. Jakarta: Gramedia, 1995. Penerjemah: Hendro Prasetyo. Pengantar: Dr. Nurcholish Madjid. Apendix, pp 125-134. See also: http://blogs.transparent.com/arabic/top-50-english-words-of-arabic-origin/ & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Arabic_origin

History of Music and Musical Instruments – Middle Eastern Background

Wafaa’ Salman

THE word “Music” comes from the Greek word “Mousiki” which means the science of the composing of melodies. ‘ilm al-musiqa was the name given by the Arabs to the Greek theory of music to distinguish it from ‘ilm al-ghinaa’ which was the Arabian practical theory.

The source of the Arabian theory of music was an older Semitic one which had an impact on, if it had not been the foundation of Greek theory. “Of course, the Arabs and Persians possessed a theory of music long before they became influenced by the translations made from the Greek at the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th century.”

Al-Farabi

By the Middle of 9th Century, the effects of the musical theories of ancient Greeks on music began to be felt. Among these treatises were Aristotle’s Problems and De anima, the comentaries of Themistius and Alexander
Aphrodisiensis on the latter, two works by Aristoxenus, the two books on music of Euclid, a tretise by Nicomachus and the Harmonics of Ptolemy, all of which had been translated into Arabic as we know from Al-Farabi.

Al-Kindi

The science of music now became one of the courses of the quadrivium, and was studied by most students at this period. The first to deal with the newly-found treasures of the “Ancients” was Al-Kindi (d.874). Seven treatises on music theory appear under his name. Four of them survived: three of them are at Berlin and the fourth is in the British Musuem.

After Al-Kindi, we have a gap of about a century in documentation. Following Al-Kindi was the great theorist Al-Farabi. His book Alkitab Alkabeer included immense and detailed information on music and musical instruments.

Al-Farabi was a good mathematician and physist, and that enabled him to do justice to what the Arabs called speculative theory, even to not repeating the errors of the Greeks. Yet he was something more. He was a practical musician and could appreciate the art as well as the science, which was more than Themistius could do, as Al-Farabi himself mentions. As a performer with a reputation, he could bring the practical art to bear upon the discussions. So whilst he was more thorough than the Greeks in handling the physical bases of sound, he could also make valuable contributions to physiological accoustics, i.e. the sensations of tone, a question which the Greeks left practically untouched.”

Al-Farabi (d.950) describes a musical instrument called Al-Tunboor Al-Baghdadi which was used in his time. The instrument’s frets (dasateen, a Persian word) gave a “pre-Islamic scale.” It was a quarter-tone scale which was developed by dividing a string into forty equal parts. Al-Farabi also describes the scale of the Tunboor Al-Khurasani which was prompted by al-Kindi’s speculations. “It became the parent of the later theory of the Systematist School.”

Henry George Farmer

Henry George Farmer in his book Historical Facts for the Arabian Musical Influence, notes that “the influence due to the Arabian culture contact in respect to musical instruments was far wider than has been generally acknowledged. The origin of the words lute, rebec, guitar and naker from the Arabic Al-‘ud, rabab, qithara and naqqara, is a well-known fact [see the Oxford Dictionary]”

Other words such as adufe, albogon, anafil, exabeba, atabal, and atambal are originally Arabic as well. They are from Ad-Duff, Al-Booq, An-Nafeer, Al-Shabbabe, At-Tabl and At-Tinbal. The adufe is a square tambourine. Another kind of tambourine mentioned in Farmer’s book is a round type called panderete. “The word equates with the Arabic bendair.” The Bendair resembles the Taar, but without jingling metal discs. Instead, there are “snares” stretched across the inside of the head, which give the instrument a tone like the Western side drum.

The Taar is another type of tambourine with jingling plates in the rim. The albogon, resembles the Arabian al-booq, was in one case a horn, and in another a sort of saxophone improved by the Andalusian Sultan Al-Hakim II. Al-Shalahi (13th century) informs us that the Christians borrowed the instrument from the Arabs.

The anafil was a long straight trumpet. Farmer mentions that “it has been generally admitted by our musical antiquaries that the straight cylindrical bore trumpet came from the Arabs. Could this have been the particular feature of the nafir and anafil? We read in “Alf Laila wa Laila” (Thousand and One Nights) that a horn-player “blew” (nafakha) the booq, but that a trumpter “blasted” (SaHe, lit. “Split”) the nafir. It is possible that these terms convey the distinction between the tones of the conical bore horn and the cylindrical bore trumpet.”

Notice that Farmer’s transliteration of the Arabic version of the word anafil is “nafir” while my transliteration is “nafeer”. Both words are pronounced the same and are for the same instrument. “The origin of the words atabal and atambal from the Arabic at-Tabl and the Persian at-Tinbal, is I believe, clear enough philologically”, says Farmer; “It would follow in consequence that the former is the older word, and that the latter was adopted at the time of the Crusades.”

At-Tabl is a big drum. At-Tumboor seems to be identical to the Tabl. It belongs to the military and processional music. It was adopted by Western armies for their military bands at the time of the Crusades. These bands before such adoption had only been served by trumpets and hornes.

In addition to the previous instruments, there are many others whose Arabic name or origin have not been well noticed. “Practically, the entire drum family came into Western Europe through the Arabian contact, or was popularised by this medium.” For example, the Kittledrum (naker, timbale) which was called “le
tambour de Perses.”

The naker (originally naqqara) or the kittledrum is a timpanic instrument with a dual hemispheric body played with wooden drumsticks. It is one of the essential instruments used with Maqam and goes as far back as the Abbasid era (prior to the 12th century) when Baghdad became the capital of the Muslim World. Dirbakka, dunbug and Tabla are various names of one kind of a drum. Tabla is an Arabic word while dunbug, a term used in Iraq and other Gulf countries, is a Persian word. The word dirbakka (or dirbakki) is a slang used in the Laventine (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine.)

The Tabla is about 15 inches long and being played either loose on either legs or while being suspended by a cord over the left shoulder and carried under the left arm. It is beaten with both hands and yields different sounds when beaten near the edge and near the middle. The Iraqi Tabla or dunbug which is only used in Iraq today is about 3 inches in diameter and specifically used for country and gypsy style music.

The Kaithaar is an interesting instrument as to the origin of the flat-chested guitar in Europe. It has been argued that the Spanish word guitarra (with t) was derived from the Arabic qitara, rather than from the Greek ki0apa (with th). It seems that the Arabic words qitara or qithara, were only used when dealing with the Greek or Byzantine instrument, while kaithaar was given to the Arabic insrtument. Henry George Farmer says that “even Al-ShalaHi says that the word Kaithaar is post-classical. He quotes a short definition of it by Abu Bakr Al-Turtushi (d. 1126), who merely says that it is a “stringed instrument.” More important, however, is a verse by Ibn Abd Rabbihi (d.940) in its praise.”

Among stringed instruments, is the Arabian qanoon, which became the European Kanon, Canon and Canale at the same time. Al-qanoon is a trapezoidal instrument with a range of three octaves which is played by plucking with a plectrum on the tip and index fingers of each hand. The total number of strings may vary between 64 and 82.

Four theories are available to us by Arab and European scholars on the origin of al-qanoon: One states that al-qanoon is originally Greek, the other indicates that it has originated in ancient Egypt, the third says it has originated from a rectangular musical instrument used in ancient Assyria which had parallel strings on top of a sound box, and the fourth theory states that qanoon is originally Indian.

There has been various theories in regard to the origin of the word qanoon as well. However, the oldest recorded usage of the word qanoon as a chrodophone instrument was during the Abbasid era around the 10th century. It was mentioned in the stories of One Thousand and one Nights.

Al-‘ud is a half pear-shaped with stripes of inlaid wood, the ‘ud has 10 to 12 strings, is unfretted and is played with a small plectrum. However, a detailed chapter in a book titled “Studies in Oriental Musical Instruments” by George Henry Farmer indicates that the Arabian and Persian lute was Fretted. Mr. Farmer in The Legacy of Islam (1931) wrote: “The Islamic legagacy to Western Europe in musical instruments was of the greatest impor tance. There were many distinctly novel Arabian types introduced. With these instruments came several materal benefits. European minstrels, prior to the Arabian contact, only had the cithara and harp among stringed instruments, and they only had their ears to guide them when tuning. The Arabs brought to Europe their lutes, pandores, and guitars, with the places of the notes fixed on the fingerboard by means of frets which were determined by measurement. This alone was a noteworthy advance.”

The origin of al-‘ud is a complex one to deal with. There are six theories on the origin of al-‘ud: One says it is originally Sumerian, the second is Persian, the third is Egyptian, the fourth is Arian, the fifth is Jewish and the sixth is Akkadian of ancient Iraq.

The word ‘Ud comes from the Arabic word for wood. Pictures of ‘Ud-like instruments have been discovered in the ruins of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Persians and Indians played it in ancient times. However, it was the Arabs (during the Abbasid Era), who perfected the ‘Ud, called it so and passed it on to the West.

Another stringed instrument is al-SanToor. The word as-SanToor belongs to the family of Semetic languages; Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic and Amharic. In the Tourah or the Old Testament, the word “p’samterion” was translated into Greek as “psalterim” and to Latin, it became “psalterium”. In the Arabic translation of Tourah, the word became “SanTeer”. As-SanToor belongs to the family of chrodophones and consists of 72 (to 100) strings. It is trapezoidal and played by two sticks. Its origin is said to be from ancient Babylonia.

Al-jawza is nowadays only common in Iraq. It is one of the main instruments used with the Maqaam. Al-jawza is called so because it is made of Jawz Al-Hind or the Indian Coconut. It has four strings and a round soundbox.

Arab musicologists are able to trace their own folk forms back to the Bedouin of ancient times, whose caravan song-the huda– cheered their desert voyages. The two famous instruments used in the Bedouin music are the naay and rababeh or rebec.

Rababeh is a single string instrument with a square soundbox played with a single string bow. The rababeh was brought to Spain by the Arabs and spread from Spain to Europe under the name rebec. It is usually referred to Al-Farabi (10th century) as the first to have mentioned the rababeh. However, Ali of Isphahan mentioned that rababeh was used at the court of Baghdad two centuries and a half before that. “This instrument was counted as one of the precursors of the European violin.”

Among the “wood-wind” instruments, the Arabian influence is as noteworthy as that of the family of drums. The medieval xelami is actually the Arabian Zulami. An instrument invented at Baghdad at the beginning of the ninth century.

The exabeba was a small flute resembles the Arabian Shabbabe or Al-naay. Al-naay is a Persian term. The Arabic words for the same instrument may be QaSaba, Shabbabe or minjara. Al-naay is a vertical flute and one of the oldest instruments employed in Arabic music. It is simply an open tube made of sugar cane whereby the instrumentalist blows diagonally accross the open end.

The wind-pipe goes as far back as the stone ages and was found all over the Eastern hemisphere in ancient times.

References:
1. Encyclopedia of Islam Volume III L-R, edited by M. Houtsma, A.J. Wensinck, E.Levi-Provencal, H.A.R. Gibb et W. Heffening.
2. A History of Arabian Music, by Henry George Farmer, published by Lowe & Brydone, Haverhill, Suffolk, England, 1929.
3. Ancient and Oriental Music by Egon Wellesz, published by Oxford University Press.
4. Studies in Oriental Musical Instruments by H.G. Farmer, London, 1931.
5. Article on “Arabic Music” by Halim Dabh, The Arab World Magazine Jan.-Feb. 1966 (Arab Information Center, New York)
6. Article on “Music in the Middle East” by Afif A. Boulos, Aramco World Magazine, Jan.-Feb 1966

Wafaa’ Salman is editor of Al-Wafaa News and the founder of the Institute of Near Eastern & African Studies (INEAS). A fuller biography is available on the INEAS site This article is reprinted with permission from Al-Wafaa News (The full article, including diagrams, is in “Previous Issues”, after clicking, it will be issue # 30, Fall, 1997, pages 4 through 7.)

Our debt to Islam

Teaching children how Muslim sages saved European philosophy could bridge a modern culture gap

Martin Wainwright
LONDON

HALFWAY down the old Band of Gold prostitutes’ beat in Lumb Lane, Bradford, there is an Asian-owned chemist’s shop advertising yunani tibb. Few people give the two words a second glance, but they are a key to a marvellous but scandalously little-known embrace between those uneasy and quarrelsome neighbours, Islam and the west.

Tibb means “medicine” in Urdu, yunani means “Greek” and the phrase comes straight from the centuries when
the Muslim world saved the bedrock of western European culture, the learning of Athens. Without the work of a 500-year succession of Islamic sages, we would have lost the essence of Aristotle, much of Plato and scores of other ancients.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna)

It happened simply enough. While the barbarians smashed and burned in western Europe, the Arabs and Persians used the libraries of Alexandria and Asia Minor, translated the scrolls and took them to Baghdad and far beyond. In distant Bukhara on the Silk Road to China, a teenager called Abu Ali Ibn Sina was engrossed in Aristotle’s Metaphysics at the age of 17.

The year was AD997 and the text – central to the subsequent development of philosophy – had long been lost and unknown in western Europe.

The story of this priceless heritage’s return home, slung in the saddlebags of camels on the long caravans to Cairo, Fez and the cities of Moorish Spain, is well known to scholars. Hundreds of learned books are available and if you key in Ibn Sina or his westernised name Avicenna on an internet search engine you will come up with about 28,800 references. But the story, so relevant to the world today, has never been admitted to everyday British culture.

There are simple reasons for this too – medieval Christian bigotry, the post-Renaissance belief in the glory of Europe – but a lack of excitement in the story is not one of them. Umberto Eco proved that in the global bestseller, The Name of the Rose. His demented monk Jorge smears poison on a lost work of Aristotle and contemptuously spits out the name of “the Arab, Averroes” – the scholar Ibn Rushd of Cordoba, the last link in the journey of Greek learning back to the west.

The national curriculum reformers, to their credit, have seen the gap and tried to fill it, but their good intentions easily get lost. How many pupils in Britain take key stage 3’s option on Islamic civilisation

AD600-1600 or the shorter, 15-hour “scheme of work” project on the cultural achievements of Islamic civilisation?

The Department for Education does not know; neither, more disturbingly, do the education authorities in a place like Bradford where Muslims and others desperately need common ground. In his report on the Yorkshire city’s divided communities last year, Lord Ouseley inveighed against the national curriculum’s shortcomings and demanded “effective learning environments in which racial differences are seen positively by pupils, underpinned by knowledge and understanding”.

He had good ideas, including a local Bradford citizenship section to be added to the national curriculum’s citizenship module, which becomes compulsory from September. But the simpler option of highlighting those KS3 options, which offer just that “knowledge and understanding”, didn’t figure. Did Ouseley and his researchers know they were there?

The need for them, and for simple, readable textbooks on both courses, is not just a matter for the white community; the story has been marginalised in Islamic culture as well. A straw poll of British Asian students in Bradford produces the occasional cautious nod at the name Ibn Sina but none for Ibn Maimoun (Maimonides, Saladin’s doctor and the greatest Jewish scholar of the Arabic world); and none for Ibn Rushd.

Like Jorge, traditionalist Muslims have long found the sage of Cordoba disturbing and hard to explain to students in the madrassa. What can they make of a man who complained that curbs on women wasted the potential of half the population of the Islamic world – and this way back in the 12th century? A man whose books, for a time, were proscribed by Christian and Muslim authorities alike?

And so we fumble on, with both communities stuck in the world memorably summarised by Dr Johnson’s explanation of why Richard Knolles’ book, A Generall Historie of the Turkes (1603), sank without trace. The author, said Johnson, “employed his genius upon a foreign and uninteresting subject and recounted enterprises and revolutions of which none desire to be informed”.

Next to Lumb Lane’s yunani tibb shop is the Asian Sweet Centre, which, significantly, has opened a subsidiary Sweet Centre fish and chip shop. Commerce and the laws of the market can force such bridges between communities; maybe the KS3 history options, in places like Bradford, need a bit of compulsion too.

Martin Wainwright is the Guardian‘s northern editor. He can be reached at
martin.wainwright@ guardian.co.uk

The Guardian
Friday July 26, 2002

Dialog with Atheists

Pg Hj Abd Rahman Pg Hj Omar
BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN

AN atheist once challenged me by asking, “If God created the Universe, then He must be outside of it. That proves that God doesn’t exist because nothing can be outside of the Universe since the Universe by definition includes everything”. The atheist considered his argument pretty profound and claimed still unanswerable by believers.

I explained to him that God is the Creator of the whole Universe, which is a clear evidence for the existence of one true God who controls everything in the Universe. Nothing occurs without God’s knowledge. Nothing moves without God’s order. Nothing stops without God’s permission. God has Power over everything. That’s why God can be everywhere He wants and only Him can do it.

Does the atheist have a point that God could not have created the Universe because to do so would put Him outside of the Universe that He can’t be outside of something that includes everything, therefore the belief in God must be false?

There is really a simple explanation to that as I have explained to the man; God can do anything He wants to do. He is most powerful and there is nothing that is impossible for Him to do or to achieve. God is always in charge and can do or not do as He pleases.

God has wisdom in everything He does. Our role is to admit to God’s Will and Wisdom because sometimes we cannot grasp this wisdom. Whatever God does is right and just. He has created everything in proportion and measure.
Physicists have already universally adopted the “big bang” theory which mimics the Quranic version that God created everything out of nothing. The problem for the atheist is a lack of understanding of who and what God is.

In another case, I still remember having a dialog quite sometime ago with an atheist about the poof of the existence of God. His argument was that whatever you cannot see, feel, or hear is not real. So he believes God is not real.

Then I asked him if he believes in aliens and his response really surprised me as he does believe in the existence of extraterrestrial (ET) beings. When I asked him why it is so as he has not seen these beings before, his response was it’s illogical that only humans can exist in this vast universe. But then I challenged him by saying it contradicts with his belief that whatever he cannot see, feel, or hear is not real.

Then asked him if he believes an alien can posses the ability to control molecules and produce a lightning bolt generated by its own body. His response was that’s just Science fiction. But when I mentioned the ability of an electric eel, he could not answer back. My last question to him was, if he believes ET beings do exist and could have supernatural power like the electric eel, then why is it hard for him to accept the existence of the being that posses supernatural power with much superior abilities than humans, a being who can control molecules and at the same time has the ability to control the universe.

I later reminded him that many world great thinkers, scientists and professors believe in the existence of God. One of them was Sir Isaac Newton and there is a famous true story about him with an atheist friend.
Newton once had a skilled mechanic make for him a model of the solar system. Balls representing the planets were geared together so as to move realistically in orbit. One day an atheist friend visited Newton. On seeing the model, he operated it, and exclaimed in admiration, “Who made it?” Newton answered, “Nobody!” The atheist replied,

“You must think I am a fool! Of course somebody made it, and he is a genius.” Newton then said to his friend,

“This thing is but a puny imitation of a much grander system whose laws you know, and I am not able to convince you that this mere toy is without a designer and maker; yet you profess to believe that the great original from which the design is taken has come into being without either designer or maker!”


According to most scholars, Newton was Arian, not holding to Trinitarianism. In Newton’s eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin. It’s the statements from Newton’s manuscripts produced late in his life which demonstrate Newton rejected the view of the Trinity.

If God created the universe and everything has a creator, then the question posed is who created God?
This question was asked by an atheist to a friend who had a discussion with a group of people who don’t believe in God. And my friend could not answer and he could not sleep the whole night.



The next day he contacted me and told me the whole incident. I explained to him that only thing that changes must have a creator. Every thing in the universe has a beginning and an end, and thus they all can be considered as changing. The time or duration of the changes happens only in the universe and not outside it as time only exists inside the universe when the universe was first formed.

Considering God does not exist in time, thus He doesn’t change and doesn’t have beginning or end. Who needs a creator if there is no beginning or no end? Since God has no beginning and no end, and exists outside time and universe, thus it is logic to say that God doesn’t have a creator. Indeed, He is the Creator of all things Himself.

Hearing my explanation, my friend was very happy.

I have a story I want to share with readers. There was once a student who just came back from overseas. When he got home, he asked his parents to look for a religious teacher, who can answer his three questions which an Atheist friend has taught him. Finally the young man’s parents found an Ustaz (a religious teacher).



Student: Who are you? Can you answer my three questions?

Ustaz: I am a servant of God and with His permission I will answer your questions.

Student: Are you sure? Many learned men were unable to answer my questions.

Ustaz: I would like to try to the extent of my ability.

Student: I have 3 questions: -

1. If indeed there is a God, show me his existence. 

2. What is destiny

3. Why the devil created of fire, entered into hell that is also made of fire, surely it would not hurt the devil because they have the same elements in common. Does God not even think that far?

Suddenly the Ustaz slapped the young man very hard in his face.



Student (while the pain): Why are you angry with me?

Ustaz: I’m not angry … The slap is my answer to all the questions that you’ve asked me.

Student: I don’t really understand.

Ustaz: What did you feel when I slapped you?

Student: Of course I felt the pain.

Ustaz: So you believe that pain exists?

Student: Yes!

Ustaz: Show me that pain exists!

Student: I can’t. 

Ustaz: That answers the first question … we all feel the existence of God without being able to see his form.

Ustaz: Did you dream last night that you will be slapped by me?
Student: No.

Ustaz: Have you ever thought that you will be receiving a slap from me today? 

Student: No.

Ustaz: That’s destiny!

Ustaz: The hand that I used to slap you, what is it made of? 

Student: Flesh.

Ustaz: What is your cheek made of?

Student: Flesh.

Ustaz: What was it like when I slapped you?

Student: Pain.

Ustaz: Although the devil is made of fire and hell is also are made of fire, with God’s will, hell which is made from fire can be a painful place for the devil.

Islamia/The Brunei Times

E-Books

From free download websites

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Donny Dhirgantoro

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HAMKA, Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijk

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HAMKA. Di Bawah Lindungan Ka’bah

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ADITJONDRO, George Junus. Gurita Cikeas.

George Junus Aditjondro

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AMIRULLAH, M. Chozin. Sejarah HMI dari Zaman Kemerdekaan Sampai Reformasi.

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ARMAS M.A., Adnin. Metodologi Bibel dalam Studi Al-Quran

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AL-ATSARI, Abu Salma. Poligami Dihujat.

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AL-A’ZAMI, Prof. Dr M.M.. Sejarah Teks Al-Quran

Prof Dr M.M. Al-A’zami

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BADERI, Muhammad Arifin. JIL/Jaringan Islam Liberal, Sebuah Doktrin Yang Telah Usang

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AL-BILALI, Abdul Hamid. Saudariku, Apa Yang Menghalangimu untuk Berjilbab?

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BEKELE, Yohannes. Samuel Zwemer’s Missionary Strategy Towards Islam.

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BRUNINESSEN, Martin van. Kitab Kuning: Books in Arabic Script Used in the Pesantren Milieu

Martin van Bruinessen

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BRUNEI. Attorney General’s Chambers. Syariah Penal Code Order, 2013

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BUCAILLE, Dr. Maurice. Bibel, Quran dan Sains Modern.

Dr Maurice Bucaille

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CAHYONO, Edy. Jaman Bergerak di Hindia Belanda: Mosaik Bacaan Kaoem Pergerakan Tempo Doeloe

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CONRADSHARRY. Rahasia Sukses Menghasilkan Uang dengan Google Adsense

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DEWI, Kurniawati Hastuti. 2012. “Javanese Women and Islam: Identity Formation Since the Twentieth Century”. South East Asian Studies, Vol. 1 No. 1, April 2012, pp. 109-140. Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.

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DICKSON, Anne Louise. Da’wah to Non-muslims in Indonesian Civil Society.

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EFFENDI, Farid Zainal. Aliran-aliran dalam Islam

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FAROUK, Peri Umar Jangan Bugil Depan kamera

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FORMICHI, Chiara. Islam and the Making of the Nation: Kartosuwiryo and Political Islam in 20th Century Indonesia.

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HAEKAL, Muhammad Husain (Mohamed Hassanein Heikal). Sejarah Hidup Muhammad.

Muhammad HusainHaekal (Mohamed Hassanein Heikal)

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HANDONO, Hj. Irena, et.al.. Islam Dihujat: Menjawab Buku ‘The Islamic Invasion’ (Karya Robert Morey).

Hj. Irena Handono

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How To Make Your Marriage Work?

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IBN TAIMIYYAH. Answering Those Who Altered the Religion of Jesus Christ

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/Answering%20those%20who%20altered%20the%20religion%20of%20Jesus%20Christ%20-%20Shaykh%20Al-Islam%20Ibn%20Taymiyyah.pdf

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JAMAL MA, Fauzun. Intelijen Nabi: Melacak Jaringan Intelijen Militer dan Sipil pada Masa Rasulullah.

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KELDANI, Prof David Benjamin. Muhammad dalam Perjanjian Lama dan Perjanjian Baru.

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AL-KHATIIB, Syeikh Muhibbuddin. Mungkinkah Syiah dan Sunnah Bersatu?

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LINDSAY, Jennifer and Maya HT LIEM (Eds). Heirs To World Culture: Being Indonesian 1950-1965.

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MOKOGINTA, Insan LS. Silsilah Muhammad versus Silsilah Yesus.

H. Insan LS Mokoginta

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MUJIBURRAHMAN. Feeling Threatened: Muslim-Christian Relations In Indonesia’s New Order

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NUGROHO, M. Yusuf Amin. Fiqh Al Ikhtilaf NU Muhammadiyah

M. Yusuf Amin Nugroho

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Abdullah Munsyi

Jan van der Putten

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As-Saif, Tsurayya Ibrahih. Nasihat untuk Wanita Pekerja.

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AL-UTSAIMIN, Syaikh Muhammad Shalih.Hukum Orang Yang Meninggalkan Sholat.

Syaikh Muhammad Shalih al-Utsaimin

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AZ-ZABY, Mahmud. Sunni Yang Sunni: Tinjauan Dialog Sunnah-Syi’ahnya al-Musawi

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THESIS/DISSERTATION

AL-SAMMANY, Nasser. Travel Literature of Moroccan Pilgrims During the 11th-12th/17th-18th Centures: Thematic and Artistic Studies.

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MUNAWAR-RACHMAN, Budhy. Ensiklopedi Nurcholish Madjid Jilid 1 A-G, Jilid 2 H-L, Jilid 3 M-P

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Budhy Munawarman-Rachman

Liberalism in “Left” Perspective

“Since the early 1960s, GM is already very familiar with Western funding sources based in the U.S., such as the Ford and Rockefeller Foundation. To ISAI (Indonesian Institute for Information Flow Studies), 1995, GM received approximately 100,000-200,000 USD funding from USAID and The Asia Foundation. GM also claimed a friendship with the founder of the Open Society Institute, George Soros, who has a lot of help. On October 17, 2008, GM increased network again with the establishment of the Community Salihara in Pasar Minggu, South Jakarta area at Rp 17.5 billion,” Dr Adian Husaini, Chairman of Magister and Doctoral Programs in Islamic Education of the Ibn Khaldun University, Bogor, West Java.

Goenawan Mohamad

Adian Husaini

Salihara Building

Liberalisme dalam Perspektif “Kiri”

Fareed Zakaria: “Indonesia Must Play a Greater Role on Islamic Issues”

Fareed Zakaria came from a multicultural environment. Born in Mumbai, India in 1964, he grew up in the middle of a Muslim intellectual family. His father was a politician and an Islamic scholar, while his mother was editor of the Sunday Times of India newspaper.

At the age of 28, he was made executive editor of Foreign Affairs, an American journal on international relations. Zakaria worked for Newsweek in 2000 as a regular columnist and international editor for 10 years.

Today, Zakaria can be seen on CNN as the host of the program ‘Fareed Zakaria GPS’. He is also an editor-at-large at Time magazine and a permanent columnist for The Washington Post. A number of his books are bestsellers, one of them being The Post-American World 2.0, on the clash of world powers and the decline of US influence.

Last month, Tempo reporter Sadika Hamid interviewed him in Bali, in between sessions of the World Culture Forum. Excerpts:

What is the role of culture in driving a country’s economic growth?

Culture does not condemn you to either being bad or good at economic growth. People say that the Chinese culture helped China to grow. But for centuries China grew very slowly, while its culture was the same. Many who wrote about China in the 1950s thought that its culture was bad. It’s the same with India. Now people say that India has this great cultural growth. But when I was growing up in India, everyone thought it was the culture that produced poverty. It shows that it’s not culture by itself, or to put it another way, you can change your culture. It is not set in stone. You may have certain cultural attributes, but if you change the economic policies, the incentives, if you reorient things, the same people who might have seemed poor, become more successful.

Some say Islam produces violence or jihad.

That is too simplistic. People look at Islam and think that it must be a violent religion. But Indonesia is a very good example. Most people, when they think of Islam, really think of a small number of Arab countries. It is very difficult for them to understand that the whole Arab world is only 290 million people out of 1.6 billion Muslims. The first Arab country is number six on the list of Muslim countries. Meanwhile, Indonesia has about 220 million Muslims, India around 150 million, Bangladesh and Pakistan have very large Muslim populations. Islam in these countries, particularly in Indonesia, is peaceful and harmonious. It encourages pluralism, recognizes and respects other religions. So what I come to live with is the thought that culture is the thing you can change, you can mold, you can adapt, in a way that it enriches growth. It is particularly important in non-Western countries because they are trying to find a way to modernize and to accept those elements of Westernization such as science and modernity but they do not want to lose their soul.

How does one become modern without losing one’s soul?

I think the most important thing is not to worry about wanting to be modern and learn from other places, but at the same time, not to be ashamed of where you came from. Even the West a few hundred years ago was not very modern. And if you look at the way they handled things, there were many problems. As a modern person you can look at your country and your culture and see there are so many elements that look so backward. And you can, in some way, think to yourself, I have to turn my back on all that. But you can take from it the spirit, you can take from it the elements you want to take, but take something, because otherwise you are leaving behind something of yourself. Somebody once said, a country without a culture is like a tree without roots. You can, even if the roots do not show, keep some parts of yourself. So, I think Indonesia does it quite well. You are trying to recognize and celebrate the old while being modern.

Some Muslim countries have succeeded in developing their countries by going with democracy and capitalism. But the radicals say that those values are “un-Islamic”.

When people say that certain modern values are not Islamic, you could say just as easily that certain modern values are not Japanese or Italian.

If you worry about where the origin of everything you are doing and not copying, you will not move forward in the world. The reality is, yes, some of these things come from other places but then they spread very quickly. Amartya Sen was giving the example of one concept in mathematics that started in India, went to Arabia and translated into Latin. That is the reality. The interpretation of Islam is different from country to country. If people said that with capitalism, they are nuts! Mohammad was a businessman, a trader. They do not even know their Islamic history. And who appointed them to decide that it is not compatible with democracy? All democracy says is to let people choose their own ruler.

If people want a dictator, they can keep electing him year after year for the rest of his life.

Some Islamic radical mass organizations in Indonesia and Pakistan are growing more intolerant towards minorities. How do you see this phenomenon?

I think this is a very dangerous trend in Islam. It is the globalization of a very particular set of Islamic beliefs and practices. They come out of the desert in Saudi Arabia, out of a very small part of the Muslim world. It is a Wahhabi tradition. It is important to remember that this was a very small isolated desert tribe. Its traditions were not practiced in the rest of the Muslim world as Islam grew from Spain to Central Asia to India to Indonesia. But then, the oil revolution occurred and the oil prices gave Saudi Arabia great wealth so it was able to export its very tiny brand of Islam, all over the world. And that has, in my view, a very negative impact in the world of Islam. In Indonesia, you see that the new Islamic centers are all Saudi-funded and they come with Wahhabi-trained clerics. Those people preach intolerance, bigotry and hatred.

In what way can Indonesia play a bigger role in Islamic issues?

I would like that when people think about what the right Islamic practices are, or what the Muslim world thinks, rather than asking some imam in Saudi Arabia, they would ask some elected politicians in Indonesia. After all, somebody like Gus Dur represents tens and tens of millions of practicing Muslims.

The crazy imams that you find in Qatar or in Saudi Arabia do not represent anyone. They are often being paid off by the government to buy some kind of cheap legitimacy, whereas those in Indonesia are actually being elected by tens of millions of Muslims as an expression of their support.

How does the world view Indonesia today?

I think there is a sense in the outside world that Indonesia has handled the challenge and the danger of jihadi violence quite well, with the combination of hard power and soft power. You were being tough but also allowing for a dialogue and allowing for reintegration. On the other hand, I think that the way that the world is looking at Indonesia now, is not a bad example of anything, but it is not yet a good example of anything. There is a sense that it is sort of in the middle of navigating its waters.

I often tell people that Indonesia is doing well economically, but I am struck by the fact that that is not the general view. The general view is that there are many problems and a lot of corruption. There are great challenges and I think that in Indonesia the most hopeful thing is that it seems to get better. If you look at Indonesia today comparing it to 10 years ago it is better. I think that if you look at Indonesia five years from now, the arrow is moving in the right direction. So I am actually quite hopeful.

(*)

The complete version of this interview can be read in this week’s edition of Tempo English magazine.

TEMPO English Magazine
Friday, 27 December, 2013

http://en.tempo.co/read/news/2013/12/26/241540404/F-Zakaria-Indonesia-Must-Play-a-Greater-Role-on-Islamic-Issues

The fate of harmony without “Merry Christmas”

“The polemic of Merry X’mas wish may be a form of Muslims’s faith prudencial matters. Initially it may be just a greeting, gradually following the events that ends with the word ‘blessing’ of their religion although to be honest, our bodies and attributes are still Islam. ‘iyadzubillah min dzalik (I ask Allah’s protection for that matters).”

President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono joining a ‘Natal Bersama’ (Joint Christmas) at the Jakarta Convention Center, in 2012.

Such a worry is in line with a hadith:

“Indeed you will follow (treatment) people before you, inch by inch, and cubit by-cubit, so if they get into the hole of Dhab (animals such as lizards) though of course you still follow them.” [Bukhari]

Istiqlal Mosque and Cathedral Church in Jakarta

Church and mosque on Jalan Enggano, Tanjung Priok, North Jakarta

Vihara and mosque

Nasib Kerukunan tanpa “Selamat Natal”

How Islamic inventors changed the world

From coffee to cheques and the three-course meal, the Muslim world has given us many innovations that we take for granted in daily life. As a new exhibition opens, Paul Vallely nominates 20 of the most influential- and identifies the men of genius behind them.

1 The story goes that an Arab named Khalid was tending his goats in the Kaffa region of southern Ethiopia, when he noticed his animals became livelier after eating a certain berry. He boiled the berries to make the first coffee. Certainly the first record of the drink is of beans exported from Ethiopia to Yemen where Sufis drank it to stay awake all night to pray on special occasions. By the late 15th century it had arrived in Mecca and Turkey from where it made its way to Venice in 1645. It was brought to England in 1650 by a Turk named Pasqua Rosee who opened the first coffee house in Lombard Street in the City of London. The Arabic qahwa became the Turkish kahve then the Italian caffé and then English coffee.

2

Ibn Al-Haitham (Alhazen)

The ancient Greeks thought our eyes emitted rays, like a laser, which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th-century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haitham. He invented the first pin-hole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters. The smaller the hole, the better the picture, he worked out, and set up the first Camera Obscura (from the Arab word qamara for a dark or private room).

Camera Obscura

He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one.

3 A form of chess was played in ancient India but the game was developed into the form we know it today in Persia. From there it spread westward to Europe – where it was introduced by the Moors in Spain in the 10th century – and eastward as far as Japan. The word rook comes from the Persian rukh, which means chariot.

4 A thousand years before the Wright brothers a Muslim poet, astronomer, musician and engineer named Abbas ibn Firnas made several attempts to construct a flying machine. In 852 he jumped from the minaret of the Grand Mosque in Cordoba using a loose cloak stiffened with wooden struts. He hoped to glide like a bird. He didn’t. But the cloak slowed his fall, creating what is thought to be the first parachute, and leaving him with only minor injuries. In 875, aged 70, having perfected a machine of silk and eagles’ feathers he tried again, jumping from a mountain. He flew to a significant height and stayed aloft for ten minutes but crashed on landing – concluding, correctly, that it was because he had not given his device a tail so it would stall on landing. Baghdad international airport and a crater on the Moon are named after him.

5 Washing and bathing are religious requirements for Muslims, which is perhaps why they perfected the recipe for soap which we still use today. The ancient Egyptians had soap of a kind, as did the Romans who used it more as a pomade. But it was the Arabs who combined vegetable oils with sodium hydroxide and aromatics such as thyme oil. One of the Crusaders’ most striking characteristics, to Arab nostrils, was that they did not wash. Shampoo was introduced to England by a Muslim who opened Mahomed’s Indian Vapour Baths on Brighton seafront in 1759 and was appointed Shampooing Surgeon to Kings George IV and William IV.

6

Jabir ibn Hayyan

Distillation, the means of separating liquids through differences in their boiling points, was invented around the year 800 by Islam’s foremost scientist, Jabir ibn Hayyan, who transformed alchemy into chemistry, inventing many of the basic processes and apparatus still in use today – liquefaction, crystallisation, distillation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation and filtration. As well as discovering sulphuric and nitric acid, he invented the alembic still, giving the world intense rosewater and other perfumes and alcoholic spirits (although drinking them is haram, or forbidden, in Islam). Ibn Hayyan emphasised systematic experimentation and was the founder of modern chemistry.

7

Al-Jazari

The crank-shaft is a device which translates rotary into linear motion and is central to much of the machinery in the modern world, not least the internal combustion engine. One of the most important mechanical inventions in the history of humankind, it was created by an ingenious Muslim engineer called al-Jazari to raise water for irrigation. His 1206 Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices shows he also invented or refined the use of valves and pistons, devised some of the first mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, and was the father of robotics. Among his 50 other inventions was the combination lock.

8

Crusaders’ metal armour

Quilting is a method of sewing or tying two layers of cloth with a layer of insulating material in between. It is not clear whether it was invented in the Muslim world or whether it was imported there from India or China. But it certainly came to the West via the Crusaders. They saw it used by Saracen warriors, who wore straw-filled quilted canvas shirts instead of armour. As well as a form of protection, it proved an effective guard against the chafing of the Crusaders’ metal armour and was an effective form of insulation – so much so that it became a cottage industry back home in colder climates such as Britain and Holland.

9 The pointed arch so characteristic of Europe’s Gothic cathedrals was an invention borrowed from Islamic architecture. It was much stronger than the rounded arch used by the Romans and Normans, thus allowing the building of bigger, higher, more complex and grander buildings. Other borrowings from Muslim genius included ribbed vaulting, rose windows and dome-building techniques. Europe’s castles were also adapted to copy the Islamic world’s – with arrow slits, battlements, a barbican and parapets. Square towers and keeps gave way to more easily defended round ones. Henry V’s castle architect was a Muslim.

10 Many modern surgical instruments are of exactly the same design as those devised in the 10th century by a Muslim surgeon called

Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis)

. His scalpels, bone saws, forceps, fine scissors for eye surgery and many of the 200 instruments he devised are recognisable to a modern surgeon. It was he who discovered that catgut used for internal stitches dissolves away naturally (a discovery he made when his monkey ate his lute strings) and that it can be also used to make medicine capsules. In the 13th century, another Muslim medic named Ibn Nafis described the circulation of the blood, 300 years before William Harvey discovered it. Muslims doctors also invented anaesthetics of opium and alcohol mixes and developed hollow needles to suck cataracts from eyes in a technique still used today.

11 The windmill was invented in 634 for a Persian caliph and was used to grind corn and draw up water for irrigation. In the vast deserts of Arabia, when the seasonal streams ran dry, the only source of power was the wind which blew steadily from one direction for months. Mills had six or 12 sails covered in fabric or palm leaves. It was 500 years before the first windmill was seen in Europe.

12 The technique of inoculation was not invented by Jenner and Pasteur but was devised in the Muslim world and brought to Europe from Turkey by the wife of the English ambassador to Istanbul in 1724. Children in Turkey were vaccinated with cowpox to fight the deadly smallpox at least 50 years before the West discovered it.

13 The fountain pen was invented for the Sultan of Egypt in 953 after he demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes. It held ink in a reservoir and, as with modern pens, fed ink to the nib by a combination of gravity and capillary action.

Al-Khwarizmi

14 The system of numbering in use all round the world is probably Indian in origin but the style of the numerals is Arabic and first appears in print in the work of the Muslim mathematicians al-Khwarizmi and al-Kindi around 825. Algebra was named after al-Khwarizmi’s book, Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, much of whose contents are still in use. The work of Muslim maths scholars was imported into Europe 300 years later by the Italian mathematician Fibonacci. Algorithms and much of the theory of trigonometry came from the Muslim world.

Al-Kindi

And Al-Kindi’s discovery of frequency analysis rendered all the codes of the ancient world soluble and created the basis of modern cryptology.

Ali ibn Nafi (Ziryab)

15 Ali ibn Nafi, known by his nickname of Ziryab (Blackbird) came from Iraq to Cordoba in the 9th century and brought with him the concept of the three-course meal – soup, followed by fish or meat, then fruit and nuts. He also introduced crystal glasses (which had been invented after experiments with rock crystal by Abbas ibn Firnas – see No 4).

16 Carpets were regarded as part of Paradise by medieval Muslims, thanks to their advanced weaving techniques, new tinctures from Islamic chemistry and highly developed sense of pattern and arabesque which were the basis of Islam’s non-representational art. In contrast, Europe’s floors were distinctly earthly, not to say earthy, until Arabian and Persian carpets were introduced. In England, as Erasmus recorded, floors were “covered in rushes, occasionally renewed, but so imperfectly that the bottom layer is left undisturbed, sometimes for 20 years, harbouring expectoration, vomiting, the leakage of dogs and men, ale droppings, scraps of fish, and other abominations not fit to be mentioned”. Carpets, unsurprisingly, caught on quickly.

17 The modern cheque comes from the Arabic saqq, a written vow to pay for goods when they were delivered, to avoid money having to be transported across dangerous terrain. In the 9th century, a Muslim businessman could cash a cheque in China drawn on his bank in Baghdad.

Ibn Hazm

18 By the 9th century, many Muslim scholars took it for granted that the Earth was a sphere. The proof, said astronomer Ibn Hazm, “is that the Sun is always vertical to a particular spot on Earth”. It was 500 years before that realisation dawned on Galileo. The calculations of Muslim astronomers were so accurate that in the 9th century they reckoned the Earth’s circumference to be 40,253.4km – less than 200km out. The scholar al-Idrisi took a globe depicting the world to the court of King Roger of Sicily in 1139.

19 Though the Chinese invented saltpetre gunpowder, and used it in their fireworks, it was the Arabs who worked out that it could be purified using potassium nitrate for military use. Muslim incendiary devices terrified the Crusaders. By the 15th century they had invented both a rocket, which they called a “self-moving and combusting egg”, and a torpedo – a self-propelled pear-shaped bomb with a spear at the front which impaled itself in enemy ships and then blew up.

20 Medieval Europe had kitchen and herb gardens, but it was the Arabs who developed the idea of the garden as a place of beauty and meditation. The first royal pleasure gardens in Europe were opened in 11th-century Muslim Spain. Flowers which originated in Muslim gardens include the carnation and the tulip.

“1001 Inventions: Discover the Muslim Heritage in Our World” is a new exhibition which began a nationwide tour this week. It is currently at the Science Museum in Manchester. For more information, go to http://www.1001inventions.com.

The Independent
Saturday, 11 March 2006

http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/how-islamic-inventors-changed-the-world-469452.html

http://www.muslimheritage.com/

Muhammadiyah

History
On November 18, 1912, Ahmad Dahlan— a court official of the kraton of Yogyakarta and an educated Muslim scholar from Mecca—established Muhammadiyah in Yogyakarta. There were a number of motives behind the establishment of this movement. Among the important ones are the backwardness of Muslim society and the penetration of Christianity. Ahmad Dahlan, much influenced by Egyptian reformist Muhammad ‘Abduh, considered modernization and purification of religion from syncretic practices were very vital in reforming this religion. Therefore, since its beginning Muhammadiyah has been very concerned with maintaining tawhid, and refining monotheism in society.

From 1913 to 1918, Muhammadiyah established five Islamic Schools. In 1919 an Islamic high school, Hooge School Muhammadiyah was established. In establishing schools, Muhammadiyah received significant help from the Boedi Oetomo, an important nationalist movement in Indonesia in the first half of the twentieth century, such as in the form of providing teachers. Muhammadiyah has generally avoided politics. Unlike its traditionalist counterpart, the Nahdatul Ulama, it never formed a political party. Since its establishment, it has devoted itself to educational and social activities.

In 1925, two years after the death of Dahlan, Muhammadiyah only has 4,000 members, even has built 55 schools and two clinics in Surabaya and Yogyakarta. After Abdul Karim Amrullah introduced the organisation to Minangkabau dynamic Moslem community, Muhammadiyah developed rapidly. In 1938, organisation claimed has 250,000 members, managed the 834 moques, 31 libraries, 1,774 schools, and 7,630 ulema. The Minangkabau Merchants spread organization to the entire of Indonesia.

During the 1965-66 political turbulence and violence, Muhammadiyah declared the extermination of the “Gestapu/PKI” (the 30 September Movement and the Indonesian Communist Party) constituted Holy War, a view endorsed by other Islamic groups. During the 1998 “Indonesian reformation”, some parts of Muhammadiyah urged the leadership to form a party. Therefore, they – including Muhammadiyah chairman, Amien Rais, founded the National Mandate Party. Although gaining large support from Muhammadiyah members, this party has no official relationship with Muhammadiyah. The leader of Muhammadiyah says the members of his organisation are free to align themselves with political parties of their choosing provided such parties have shared values with Muhammadiyah.

Today, with 29 million members Muhammadiyah is the second largest Muslim organization in Indonesia, after Nahdlatul Ulama.

Doctrine
The central doctrine of Muhammadiyah is Sunni Islam. However, the main focus of the Muhammadiyah movement is to heighten people’s sense of moral responsibility, purifying their faith to true Islam. It emphasizes the authority of the Qur’an and the Hadiths as supreme Islamic law that serves as the legitimate basis of the interpretation of religious belief and practices, in contrast to traditional practices where shariah law invested in religious school by ulema.

Muhammadiyah strongly opposes syncretism, where Islam in Indonesia has coalesced with animism (spirit worship) and with Hindu-Buddhist values that were spread among the villagers, including the upper classes, from the pre-Islamic period. Furthermore, Muhammadiyah opposes the tradition of Sufism that allows Sufi leader (shaykh) as the formal authority of Muslims.

As of 2006, it is said to have “veered sharply toward a more conservative brand of Islam” under the leadership of Din Syamsuddin the head of the Indonesian Ulema Council.

Activities
Muhammadiyah is noted as a Muslim reformists organization. Its main activities are religion and education. It has built Islamic schools in modern forms, aside from traditional pesantren. Some of its schools are also open to non-Muslims. Currently there are around 5,754 schools owned by Muhammadiyah.

It has also functioned as a charitable organization. Today it owns several hundred medical clinics and hospitals in Indonesia. Recently it has been active in campaigning about the danger of bird flu in Indonesia.

Organization
The national headquarters was originally in Yogyakarta. However, by 1970 the committees dealing with education, economics, health and social welfare had been relocated to the national capital, Jakarta.

Muhammadiyah is supported by several autonomous organizations:
-Aisyiyah ( Women )
-Pemuda Muhammadiyah ( Youth )
-Nasyiatul Aisyiyah ( Young Women ) (http://nasyiah.or.id)
-Ikatan Pelajar Muhammadiyah ( Student association )
-Ikatan Mahasiswa Muhammadiyah (College student )
-Tapak Suci Putra Muhammadiyah (Pencak Silat)
-Hizbul Wathan ( Scouting ).

The central committee structure consists of five advisors, a chairman, a vice chairman, a secretary general and some deputies, a treasurer and some deputies, as well as several deputies of chairman.

List of Leaders
Number Name Period
1. K.H. Ahmad Dahlan 1 August 1912-23 February 1923
2. K.H. Ibrahim 23 February 1923-13 October 1932
3. K.H. Hisyam 10 November 1934-20 May 1936
4. K.H. Mas Mansur 25 June 1937-25 April 1942
5. Ki Bagoes Hadikoesoemo 24 November 1944-4 November 1953
6. Buya A.R. Sutan Mansur 4 November 1953-25 March 1959
7. K.H. M. Yunus Anis 25 March 1959-3 June 1962
8. K.H. Ahmad Badawi 3 June 1962-25 April 1968
9. K.H. Faqih Usman 25 April 1968-3 October 1968
10. K.H. A.R. Fachruddin 3 October 1968- 17 March 1971
11. K.H. Ahmad Azhar Basyir 15 December 1990-28 June 1995
12. Prof. Dr. H. Amien Rais 28 June 1995-26 April 1998
13. Prof. Dr. H. Ahmad Syafi’i Ma’arif 26 April 1998-31 May 2000
14. Prof. Dr. K.H. Din Syamsuddin, M.A. 31 August 2005-8 July 2010
15. Prof. Dr. K.H. Din Syamsuddin, M.A. 8 July 2010-Present

Muhammadiyah organisation has a number of universities which are spread out in several provinces of Indonesia, such as:

Muhammadiyah University of Malang
Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta
Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta
Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto
Muhammadiyah University of Makassar
Muhammadiyah University of Magelang
Muhammadiyah University of Semarang
Muhammadiyah University of Metro, Indonesia
Muhammadiyah University of Palembang
Muhammadiyah University of Bengkulu
Muhammadiyah University of West Sumatra
Muhammadiyah University of North Sumatra
Muhammadiyah University of Aceh
Muhammadiyah University of Cirebon
Muhammadiyah University of Bekasi
Muhammadiyah University of Purworejo
Muhammadiyah University of Surabaya
Muhammadiyah University of Sidoarjo
Muhammadiyah University of Gresik
Muhammadiyah University of Jember
Muhammadiyah University of Kupang
Muhammadiyah University of Ternate
Muhammadiyah University of Gorontalo
Muhammadiyah University of Jakarta
Muhammadiyah University of Prof. Dr. HAMKA
Ahmad Dahlan University of Yogyakarta
Muhammadiyah University of Parepare
Muhammadiyah University of Sukabumi

Wikipedia